The Nature of Theory

Theory is a set of interrelated propositions about constructs. Theories are conceptual frameworks that aid in organizing and predicting phenomena. Again, just as everyone collects data, both lay persons and researchers have theories. According to McGuire (1980), formal theories "are distinguished from ordinary thought by the use of more explicit definitions and more abstract and more formally interrelated principles" (p. 53). Theories vary in their specificity and their units of analysis. Deutsch and Krauss illustrate this through the metaphor of a net:

Theory is a net man weaves to catch the world of observation—to explain, predict, and influence it. The theorists . . . have woven nets of different sorts. Some are all-purpose nets meant to catch many species of behavior, others are clearly limited to a few species; some have been constructed for use near the surface, others work best in the depths. (Deutsch & Krauss, 1965, p. vii)

Their analogy illustrates that the utility, meaningfulness, and validity of a theory will depend upon its application and frame of reference. Shaw and Costanzo (1982) identify three characteristics that they consider necessary in the evaluation of the quality of a theory:

1. Logical and internal consistency;
2. Agreement with known data;
3. Testability.

In addition, they identify three characteristics that are desirable:

1. Simple in its presentation;
2. Economical in its ability to explain phenomena;
3. Consistent with related theories.

Theories represent templates through which phenomena are interpreted using language and thought. But they are not "merely theories" in the sense that they are inconsequential. McGuire poignantly states how indispensable theories are:

What makes theorizing a tragedy is not that our theories are poor but that, poor as they are, they are essential, for we cannot do without them. The ubiquity of formal and informal theorizing demonstrates its indispensability. To cope with reality we must reduce it to the oversimplified level of complexity that our minds can manage and distort it into the type of representations that we can grasp. We are reduced to groping for theories that are happy instances of brilliant oversimplification whose elected ignorances and distortions happen to be incidental to the matter under consideration, so that within the momentary situation the theory's apt focusing of our creative and critical appraisal yields gains that outweigh the losses caused by its oversights and distortions. (McGuire, 1980, p. 54)

The value of theories is that they clarify and simply information, inferences, and decisions by providing a context within which questions can be asked and answered. Theories can provide a rich set of heuristics through which to explore auxiliary phenomena, boundary conditions, and alternative conceptual frameworks. In doing so, theories suggest additional means for analyzing phenomena, a context for subsequent predictions, and a basis of relating research findings to other research and theories. Bringle (2003) has contended that research on service-learning has suffered from a lack of attention to theory and has suggested ways in which theories can be borrowed from cognate areas or developed to improve service-learning research.